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Libius Severus

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</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Libius Severus</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">Solidus</a> of Libius Severus marked: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">

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</style><abbr title="DOMINUS NOSTER">d·n·</abbr> libius severus <abbr title="PIUS FELIX">p·f·</abbr> <abbr title="AUGUSTUS">aug·</abbr></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> </th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">19 November 461 – 14 November 465<a href="#cite_note-dates-5">[nb 1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern</a> emperor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Lucania" title="Lucania">Lucania</a><a href="#cite_note-Gallic_L-6">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">14 November 465<a href="#cite_note-dates-5">[nb 1]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Libius Severus (Serpentius?)</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Libius Severus, sometimes enumerated as Severus III,<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> was <a href="Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman emperor</a> from November 19, 461 to his death on November 14, 465. A native of <a href="Lucania" title="Lucania">Lucania</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gallic_E-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gallic_L-6">[5]</a> Severus was the fourth of the so-called "Shadow Emperors"<a href="#cite_note-McEvoy-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a> who followed the deposition of the <a href="Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a> in 455. He ruled for just under four years, attaining the throne after his predecessor, <a href="Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a>, was overthrown by his <a href="Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magister militum</a>, <a href="Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a>. Severus was the first of a series of emperors who were highly dependent on the general, and it is often presumed that Ricimer held most of the <a href="De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> power during Severus' reign.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 215 ff. <a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-16">[15]</a>: 69

Severus' reign was marked by diplomatic tension and an erosion of Rome's control over the non-Italian provinces. Diplomatically, Severus failed to secure the <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">eastern emperor</a> <a href="Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo's</a> recognition, and the alliance Majorian had made with <a href="Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandal</a> king <a href="Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a> crumbled as the Vandals raided <a href="Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 435 <a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 227 In <a href="Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and <a href="Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a> officials loyal to Majorian refused to submit to Severus' rule, and Northern Italy was invaded by the <a href="Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 227 f. <a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a>

Severus remains an extremely obscure figure. The ancient sources are almost completely mute on his life and character.<a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-16">[15]</a>: 69 <a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 216 Because of the size of Ricimer's influence, no single imperial action can be definitively attributed to Severus; thus the <a href="#Relationship_with_Ricimer">extent of Ricimer's control</a> over imperial affairs during the reign of Severus remains a point of contention among scholars.

Modern scholars are in agreement that Severus' first two names are Libius Severus.<a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a> However, in <a href="Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>, the interchanging of b and v became common, and thus Severus' cognomen is sometimes rendered incorrectly as Livius.<a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a>: 228, n. 1 <a href="#cite_note-McEvoy-12">[11]</a>: 97, n. 19

In addition to these two names, Severus is sometimes referred to by a third name, Serpentius. The <a href="Chronicon_Paschale" title="Chronicon Paschale">Chronicon Paschale</a><a href="#cite_note-Pasch-19">[18]</a>: 85 uses only this name for the emperor, and the chronicle of <a href="Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a><a href="#cite_note-Theof-3">[3]</a>: AM5955 uses both Severus and Serpentius. Modern scholars are divided as to the authority of this attribution: some (including the <a href="Prosopography_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire">PLRE</a>) say the text is corrupt and its meaning uncertain,<a href="#cite_note-PLRE-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> while others argue it was a <a href="Roman_Naming_Conventions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Naming Conventions">signum</a> or <a href="Roman_Naming_Conventions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Naming Conventions">supernomen</a> deriving from the word for serpent.<a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a> Among those who accept the name, its source—whether it is of Eastern or Western origin—is also disputed.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 216, 261

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geopolitical_background">Geopolitical background</h3></div>

By the time of Severus, the <a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>'s governance had been firmly split between two centers of power: one in the <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">East</a> centered at <a href="Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and one in the <a href="Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">West</a> centered at either <a href="Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> or <a href="Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>. During the late fourth and early fifth century the East saw a period of relative peace. The West on the other hand underwent a series of invasions, major political upheavals, and losses of important provinces. By the early 460s, <a href="Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a> had been abandoned, <a href="Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> had been conquered by the <a href="Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, and <a href="Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> was occupied by the <a href="Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a> and the <a href="Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> (who were <a href="Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a> of the empire).<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a>

During this time, in both the Eastern and Western courts, <a href="Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">barbarian</a> generals became increasingly influential; at times, these generals' power rivaled even the emperors'. Of these figures, the most prominent in the West were <a href="Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a> (under the emperor <a href="Honorius_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>) and <a href="Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aëtius</a> (under <a href="Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a>). After Aëtius' assassination in 454, the western empire entered a downward spiral. <a href="Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian</a> was deposed, his surviving family was taken captive by <a href="Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a>, and the replacement emperor (<a href="Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Maximus</a>) was killed while <a href="Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">Rome was sacked</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Generals-23">[22]</a>

Out of this political chaos, the <a href="Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magister militum</a> <a href="Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a> and general <a href="Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a> were able to quickly seize power. Ricimer was a popular and successful military commander, but because he was of non-Roman origin, he was not an acceptable candidate for emperor in the minds of the Senate and people of Rome. Thus, Majorian became emperor with Ricimer still retaining significant political and military authority.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 190 f.

Majorian's reign proved to be an active and healthy one. Recognized by the eastern emperor <a href="Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a>, Majorian's reign saw political reform and the strengthening of Roman control over Gaul and Hispania. However, in 461, Ricimer had Majorian killed. Though the ancient sources are almost unanimous on that Majorian was assassinated by Ricimer,<a href="#cite_note-25">[nb 2]</a> it remains unclear why Ricimer carried out this act. One reading suggests that Ricimer wanted absolute power from the outset, and that Majorian proved too independent and capable for Ricimer to effectively control.<a href="#cite_note-Generals-23">[22]</a>: 109 f. <a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-16">[15]</a>: 69 <a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 427 Whatever his motives, Majorian's death cemented Ricimer as the most powerful man in the Western empire.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_background">Personal background</h3></div>

Almost nothing is known about the person of Severus; perhaps the only definitive piece of personal information that has come down to us, aside from his <a href="#Name">name</a>, is a single line in the <a href="Chronica_Gallica_of_511" title="Chronica Gallica of 511">Chronica Gallica of 511</a>: "and Severus, from the <a href="Lucania" title="Lucania">Lucanian</a> lands, was elevated as emperor and consul."<a href="#cite_note-Gallic_E-11">[10]</a> One other source notes that Severus "lived religiously."<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 432 Modern scholars speculate that he was a high-ranking member of society and very likely a senator.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 215 <a href="#cite_note-McEvoy-12">[11]</a>: 97 <a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a>: 237 He seems to have spent most of his rule in Rome rather than Ravenna, but whether this was out of personal preference, political expediency, precedent set by Valentinian, or Ricimer's prerogative is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-McEvoy-12">[11]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reign">Reign</h2></div>

After the death of Majorian, a three-month <a href="Interregnum" title="Interregnum">interregnum</a> followed, where the title of Western Emperor remained unclaimed. During this interregnum, a political struggle for the succession ensued between <a href="Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a>, eastern emperor <a href="Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a>, and <a href="Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a>, the King of the Vandals.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 433–436 <a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a> Eventually, however, on 19 November 461<a href="#cite_note-dates-5">[nb 1]</a>, Severus was acclaimed <a href="Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> by the senate in <a href="Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contested_legitimacy">Contested legitimacy</h3></div>

Throughout his reign, Severus' legitimacy proved to be a major political issue. Immediately after the death of Majorian, the western court faced three political obstacles:

<ul><li>Gaiseric, after capturing many of the women of Valentinian's family during the <a href="Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">sack of Rome in 455</a>, married them to his son <a href="Huneric" title="Huneric">Huneric</a> and Italian nobleman <a href="Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a>. Olybrius was now one of the senior male members of the Valentinian Dynasty and also Gaiseric's nephew-in-law. After the murder of Majorian, some ancient sources<a href="#cite_note-27">[nb 3]</a> report that Gaiseric began raiding the Italian coast in an attempt to pressure Ricimer to depose Severus and elevate Olybrius.<a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 217, n. 11 </li>

<li>The eastern emperor Leo refused to recognize Severus, either as an <a href="Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> or as a consul. It seems that the official line in the east was that Severus' rule was invalid—the eastern historians who mention him, namely <a href="Marcellinus_Comes" title="Marcellinus Comes">Marcellinus Comes</a> and <a href="Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>, describe him as a usurper of the Western throne.<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> This lack of recognition severely impeded cooperation between the two courts, and requests from the West for ships to relieve the besieged Italian coastlines were rejected.<a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 433 f. The eastern court did, however, recognize the western-appointed consul of 463, <a href="Caecina_Decius_Basilius" title="Caecina Decius Basilius">Caecina Decius Basilius</a>, whose appointment some historians characterize as the result of negotiations between the two courts.<a href="#cite_note-Religion-29">[26]</a>: 320 </li>

<li>Severus' reign was explicitly rejected by the <a href="Magister_militum_per_Gallias" class="mw-redirect" title="Magister militum per Gallias">magister militum per Gallias</a> <a href="Aegidius" title="Aegidius">Aegidius</a> and the semi-autonomous ruler of <a href="Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyricum</a> <a href="Marcellinus_(magister_militum)" title="Marcellinus (magister militum)">Marcellinus</a>. The revolt of these two commanders, formerly loyal to Majorian, meant the effective loss of two additional western provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-16">[15]</a>: 70 <a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 46, 227 <a href="#cite_note-Bury-30">[27]</a></li></ul>

These problems would persist for the entirety of Severus' reign. Though Ricimer would eventually subdue both Aegidius and Marcellinus, the separation of Dalmacia from the western empire would prove permanent.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provincial_unrest">Provincial unrest</h3></div>

At the time of the ascension of Severus, <a href="Marcellinus_(magister_militum)" title="Marcellinus (magister militum)">Marcellinus</a>, an important military official in <a href="Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmacia</a>, was in <a href="Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicily</a> in command of an army of ‘Scythians’—tribesmen (possibly Huns) from beyond the Danube—likely recruited by Marcellinus personally.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 40–42 Marcellinus, closely aligned with the eastern court, seems not to have recognized Severus. The size of the army so close to Italy alarmed Ricimer, who used a combination of political pressure on the eastern court and bribery of the soldiers under Marcellinus' command to force Marcellinus back across the sea: According to two fragments of <a href="Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a>' <a href="Priscus#History_of_Byzantium" title="Priscus">History of Byzantium</a>, Ricimer bribed all the soldiers under Marcellinus' command to switch sides, and convinced the eastern court to send a man named Phylarchus to Marcellinus to persuade him not to attack the West.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bury-30">[27]</a>: 333 <a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 227

In Gaul, <a href="Aegidius" title="Aegidius">Aegidius</a>, though in revolt against Severus, was unable to cross the Alps as he was tied down defending against the <a href="Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>. Nevertheless, he maintained his independence in the north of Gaul for several years.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 436–438 To oppose Aegidius, Severus (or Ricimer) appointed <a href="Agrippinus_(magister_militum)" title="Agrippinus (magister militum)">Agrippinus</a> to the office of magister militum per Gallias. Agrippinus asked for support from the Visigoths, and with their help moved against Aegidius and his <a href="Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> allies, led by King <a href="Childeric_I" title="Childeric I">Childeric I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a> However, in exchange for their support, in 462 the Visigoths received the city of <a href="Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a>, thus gaining access to the <a href="Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and separating Aegidius from the rest of the empire. After the death of Aegidius, <a href="Arvandus" title="Arvandus">Arvandus</a> was appointed as <a href="Praetorian_prefecture_of_Gaul" title="Praetorian prefecture of Gaul">Praetorian prefect of Gaul</a> in 464.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 225

In Northern Italy, there seems to have been an invasion of <a href="Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> under a king named <a href="Alans#Migration_to_Gaul" title="Alans">Beorgor</a>. The invasion culminated in the defeat of Beorgor at the <a href="Battle_of_Bergamo" title="Battle of Bergamo">Battle of Bergamo</a> on 8 February 464. Little information is preserved about the invasion, but its presence in multiple sources including the <a href="Fasti_Vindobonenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasti Vindobonenses">Fasti Vindobonenses</a> indicates that the invasion was a major one.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 228 <a href="#cite_note-Fasti_pri-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_with_the_Vandals">Conflict with the Vandals</h3></div>

After Severus' ascension, <a href="Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a> led the <a href="Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> on a series of raids of the Italian coast. According to a fragment of <a href="John_of_Antioch_(historian)" title="John of Antioch (historian)">John of Antioch</a>'s Historia Chronike,<a href="#cite_note-frags-32">[29]</a>: p. 616, col. 2, fr. 204 <a href="Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Gaiseric</a> justified the raids by arguing that he was the rightful inheritor of Valentinian's and Aëtius' estates, as his son had married Valentinian's daughter <a href="Eudocia_(daughter_of_Valentinian_III)" title="Eudocia (daughter of Valentinian III)">Eudocia</a>. Despite not pressing for Olybrius' enthronement explicitly, Gaiseric never relinquished his claim.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 434–436 <a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bury-30">[27]</a>: 334

Vandal raids deeply affected the economy of the Italian landowners. <a href="Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a> reports that at some point during Severus' reign, some representatives of the Italian aristocracy went to the Emperor to plead for a reconciliation with Gaiseric. Severus sent the patrician Tatian on an embassy to the king of the Vandals, but Gaiseric rejected the terms outright.<a href="#cite_note-frags-32">[29]</a>: p. 105 f., fr. 32, 33 <a href="#cite_note-Attila-33">[30]</a>: 120 <a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_Ricimer">Relationship with Ricimer</h3></div>

The relationship between Ricimer and Severus is a point of contention among scholars. The perhaps more traditional view has been to see Severus as a <a href="Puppet_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Puppet emperor">puppet emperor</a> of <a href="Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a> with little will of his own. This view is expressed by <a href="Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, who wrote "during that period [the six years between Majorian and Anthemius], the government was in the hands of Ricimer alone."<a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-16">[15]</a>: 69 Many modern historians agree with this assessment, including <a href="J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">J. B. Bury</a>, <a href="Thomas_Hodgkin" title="Thomas Hodgkin">Thomas Hodgkin</a>, John M. O'Flynn, and C.D. Gordon.<a href="#cite_note-Bury-30">[27]</a>: 332–333 <a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 432–433 <a href="#cite_note-Generals-23">[22]</a>: 111 <a href="#cite_note-Attila-33">[30]</a> However, some modern historians dispute this view, arguing that Severus may have had much more agency than the ancient sources suggest.<a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 232–233

Important evidence for this controversy comes from inscriptions and <a href="Numismatics" title="Numismatics">numismatics</a>. Some coins, dated approximately to Severus' reign, bear a monogram on the reverse sometimes identified with Ricimer. The monogram has been the source of significant scholarly disagreement; if the monogram is Ricimer's it represents a major shift in the constitution of the Late Empire.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 218 The monogram exists in two variant forms, and a number of interpretations (other than the traditional reading RICIMER) have been suggested: <a href="John_Kent_(numismatist)" title="John Kent (numismatist)">John Kent</a> reads the inscription as ROMAE, making the monogram a mint mark.<a href="#cite_note-monogram-34">[31]</a>: 9 f. Some scholars suggest SEVERVS, reading the A in the variant form as a <a href="Hypercorrection" title="Hypercorrection">hypercorrection</a> of E to AE.<a href="#cite_note-monogram-34">[31]</a>: 18 A number of other identifications have been put forward, including <a href="Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a>, <a href="Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorianus</a>, <a href="Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a>, <a href="Alypia_(daughter_of_Anthemius)" title="Alypia (daughter of Anthemius)">Alpia</a>, and <a href="Marcellinus_(magister_militum)" title="Marcellinus (magister militum)">Marcellinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> Other physical evidence includes a rectangular bronze plaque (perhaps an exagium, an official standard weight for coins) reading, "Health to our Lords [Leo and Severus] / and the patrician / Ricimer."<a href="#cite_note-36">[nb 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 217 f. The proximity of Ricimer's name to the emperors' indicates his ascendant position in the state.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 217 f.

It is also in the context of Severus' reign that the title rex, usually translated as king, is first applied to Ricimer: the sixth-century historian <a href="Marcellinus_Comes" title="Marcellinus Comes">Marcellinus Comes</a> writes in his chronicle: "<a href="Alans#Migration_to_Gaul" title="Alans">Beorgor</a>, King of the Alans, was killed by King Ricimer".<a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[nb 5]</a> However, Marcellinus' use of the term has been interpreted a number of ways, including as a reflection of his royal Gothic heritage, his increased political power and autonomy, or early evidence for his monarchical ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 229 f. <a href="#cite_note-Religion-29">[26]</a>: 309

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div>

Severus died in Rome on 14 November 465<a href="#cite_note-dates-5">[nb 1]</a> after ruling for just under four years. The details of Severus' death are obscure, and the ancient sources are in disagreement, but the majority of modern scholars contend that Severus died of natural causes.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 232 f. <a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 440 f.

Of the ancient sources which mention the death of Severus, two are of particular importance:<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 232 <a href="Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a>, in the 6th century, wrote that Severus was poisoned by Ricimer in his palace,<a href="#cite_note-39">[nb 6]</a> while the poet <a href="Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a>, in a <a href="Panegyric" title="Panegyric">panegyric</a> to Majorian delivered at Rome, wrote that Severus died "according to the law of nature."<a href="#cite_note-41">[nb 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-emperors.org-14">[13]</a> The latter statement has been interpreted variously by historians, either as evidence for the existence of a rumor blaming Ricimer for Severus' death<a href="#cite_note-Sidonius-40">[34]</a>: n. 6 <a href="#cite_note-Generals-23">[22]</a>: 113, n. 40 <a href="#cite_note-Stevens-42">[35]</a> or as evidence against the existence of such a rumor.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 432 f. <a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 232 Ricimer may have been present at the reading of the panegyric, further complicating the situation.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 236

Historians who accept that Ricimer may have killed Severus have put forward several possible motivations. Severus may have been an obstacle to Ricimer's reconciliation with Leo.<a href="#cite_note-Generals-23">[22]</a>: 111–114 <a href="#cite_note-Seeck-43">[36]</a> Another theory suggests that Severus was much more active than Ricimer desired. According to this theory, Ricimer may have killed Severus in the hopes of reigning solely or with a less powerful puppet emperor.<a href="#cite_note-Oost-17">[16]</a> Because of the scarcity of evidence, it is difficult to make any certain judgement on the nature of Severus' death.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-dates-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dates_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dates_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dates_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dates_5-3">d</a> Most modern scholars give 19 November 461 and 14 November 465 for Severus' ascension and death respectively,<a href="#cite_note-PLRE-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 261 but the ancient sources are not unanimous. Both <a href="Victor_of_Tunnuna" title="Victor of Tunnuna">Victor of Tunnuna</a><a href="#cite_note-PLRE-1">[1]</a> and <a href="Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a><a href="#cite_note-Theof-3">[3]</a>: AM5955 give 7 July 461 for Severus' ascension; the <a href="Fasti_vindobonenses_priores" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasti vindobonenses priores">Fasti vindobonenses priores</a> gives 15 August 465 for Severus' death,<a href="#cite_note-Fasti_pri-4">[4]</a> though such an early date is contested by the <a href="Prosopography_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire">PLRE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PLRE-1">[1]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Procopius<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> is the sole exception, but modern scholars discount his narrative in this case.<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Generals-23">[22]</a>: 110 <a href="#cite_note-Hodgkin-15">[14]</a>: 427 f.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> For a discussion of the divergence in the ancient sources, see<a href="#cite_note-MacGeorge-2">[2]</a>: 258

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> 'salvis dd. nn. / et patricio / Ricimere' <a href="Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08072&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">X, 8072</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> 'Beorgor rex Halanorum a Ricimere rege occiditur.'<a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> 'ut dicitur Ricimeris fraude, Severus Romae in Palatio veneno peremptus est' Cassiodorus, Chronica , s.a. 465

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> "Auxerat Augustus naturae lege Severus / divorum numerum" <a href="#cite_note-Sidonius-40">[34]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Pasch-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Pasch_19-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWhitbyWhitby1989" class="citation book cs1">Whitby, Michael; Whitby, Mary, eds. (1989). Chronicon Paschale: 284–628 AD. England: Liverpool University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-85323-096 0</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Neues Holder-Egger, O. Archiv der Gesellschaft für Ältere Deutsche Geschichtskunde, I (1876), 13–120, 213–368; 11 (1877), 47–109; at 1, 291, n. 3

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<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCorning2015" class="citation book cs1">Corning, Caitlin (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1076&context=hist_fac">"Early Medieval World"</a>. World History, A Short, Visual Introduction. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1506402871</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCulbertson1966" class="citation thesis cs1">Culbertson, James Thomas (1966). "I–X". Two Roman generals: Flavius Stilicho and Flavius Aetius (Thesis). The University of Arizona. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.854.1335">10.1.1.854.1335</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Generals-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Generals_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Generals_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Generals_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Generals_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Generals_23-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Generals_23-5">f</a> <cite id="CITEREFO'Flynn1983" class="citation book cs1">O'Flynn, John M (1983). "8: Ricimer the Emperor-Maker". Generalissimos of the western Roman Empire. Edmonton, Alta., Canada: University of Alberta Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-88864-031-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> *<cite id="CITEREFProcopius_of_Caesarea" class="citation cs1"><a href="Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius of Caesarea</a>. History of the Wars: The Vandalic War, Volume <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Wars/Book_III" class="extiw external" title="s:History of the Wars/Book III">VII</a> – via <a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Theophanes, Chronografia, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Chronographia_(Theophanes)_-_AM_5955" class="extiw external" title="s:la:Chronographia (Theophanes) - AM 5955">AM 5955</a>; <a href="Chronica_Gallica_of_511" title="Chronica Gallica of 511">Chronica Gallica of 511</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Chronica_gallica_a._dxi#636" class="extiw external" title="s:la:Chronica gallica a. dxi">636</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Marcellinus, Chronicle, s.a. 465. Jordanes, Romana, 336.

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<li id="cite_note-Religion-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_29-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMathisen" class="citation book cs1">Mathisen, Ralph W. "Ricimer's Church in Rome: How an Arian Barbarian Prospered in a Nicene World". In Cain, Andrew; Lenski, Noel (eds.). The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity. University of Colorado at Boulder: Ashgate.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Bury-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bury_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bury_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bury_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bury_30-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFBury1923" class="citation book cs1">Bury, J. B. (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280246/page/n361/mode/2up">History of the Later Roman Empire</a>. Vol. I. London: Macmillan and Co. p. 333.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKulikowski2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kulikowski, M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44172752">"Marcellinus 'of Dalmatia' and the Dissolution of the Fifth-Century Empire"</a>. Byzantion. 72 (1). Peeters Publisher: 177–191. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44172752">44172752</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCutler2016" class="citation web cs1">Cutler, Robert M. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/27183110">"The Ricimer Monogram with Its Mysterious Additional A"</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Stevens-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Stevens_42-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStevens1933" class="citation book cs1">Stevens, Courtenay Edward (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sidoniusapollina0000stev/page/99/mode/1up">Sidonius Apollinaris and his Age</a>. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 99 f.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Seeck-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Seeck_43-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSeeck1921" class="citation book cs1">Seeck, Otto (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geschichtedesunt06seecuoft/page/352/mode/2up">Geschichte des Untergangs der Antiken Welt</a>. Vol. VI. Stuttgart J. B. Metzler. p. 352.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHughes2015" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Ian (2015). "8: Libius Severus". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2HNDwAAQBAJ">Patricians and Emperors: The Last Rulers of the Western Roman Empire</a>. Casemate Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1473866447</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Ralf Scharf, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rhm.uni-koeln.de/139/Scharf.pdf">"Zu einigen Daten der Kaiser Libius Severus und Maiorian</a>, Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, 139 (1996), pp. 180–188.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120412041230/http://papyri-leipzig.dl.uni-leipzig.de/receive/UBLPapyri_schrift_00002250;jsessionid=D43D2172E6A5E08C1E4AD3DF76DBC021?XSL.Style=print">https://web.archive.org/web/20120412041230/http://papyri-leipzig.dl.uni-leipzig.de/receive/UBLPapyri_schrift_00002250;jsessionid=D43D2172E6A5E08C1E4AD3DF76DBC021?XSL.Style=print</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Libius_Severus" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Libius Severus">Libius Severus</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tantaluscoins.com/browse.php?type=2&sbt=3&sbc=128&cur=1">Coins of Libius Severus</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Roman_and_Byzantine_emperors_and_empresses_regnant433" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Roman</a> and <a href="List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperors</a> and empresses regnant</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> 27 BC – AD 235</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a></li>

<li><a href="Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a></li>

<li><a href="Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></li>

<li><a href="Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a></li>

<li><a href="Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a></li>

<li><a href="Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></li>

<li><a href="Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a></li>

<li><a href="Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li>

<li><a href="Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a></li>

<li><a href="Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li>

<li><a href="Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li>

<li><a href="Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a></li>

<li><a href="Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a></li>

<li><a href="Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a></li>

<li><a href="Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a></li>

<li><a href="Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li>

<li><a href="Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> (w. <a href="Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></li>

<li><a href="Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis</a> 235–284</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus I</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></li>

<li><a href="Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a></li>

<li><a href="Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></li>

<li><a href="Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip I</a> (w. <a href="Philip_II_(Roman_emperor)" title="Philip II (Roman emperor)">Philip II</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> (w. <a href="Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Herennius Etruscus</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (w. <a href="Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a> & <a href="Volusianus" title="Volusianus">Volusianus</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a></li>

<li><a href="Silbannacus" title="Silbannacus">Silbannacus</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (w. <a href="Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius II</a></li>

<li><a href="Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></li>

<li><a href="Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a></li>

<li><a href="Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></li>

<li><a href="Florianus" title="Florianus">Florianus</a></li>

<li><a href="Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a></li>

<li><a href="Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></li>

<li><a href="Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> 284–641</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li>

<li><a href="Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li>

<li><a href="Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a></li>

<li><a href="Severus_II" title="Severus II">Severus II</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a></li>

<li><a href="Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a></li>

<li><a href="Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a></li>

<li><a href="Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus II</a></li>

<li><a href="Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a></li>

<li><a href="Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a></li>

<li><a href="Constans" title="Constans">Constans I</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a></li>

<li><a href="Nepotianus" title="Nepotianus">Nepotianus</a></li>

<li><a href="Vetranio" title="Vetranio">Vetranio</a></li>

<li><a href="Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li>

<li><a href="Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a></li>

<li><a href="Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a></li>

<li><a href="Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a></li>

<li><a href="Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a></li>

<li><a href="Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a></li>

<li><a href="Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> (w. <a href="Victor_(emperor)" title="Victor (emperor)">Victor</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> 395–476</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Honorius" title="Honorius">Honorius</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a> (w. <a href="Constans_II_(son_of_Constantine_III)" title="Constans II (son of Constantine III)">Constans II</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a></li>

<li><a href="Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a></li>

<li><a href="Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a></li>

<li><a href="Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a></li>

<li><a href="Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a></li>

<li><a href="Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a></li>

<li><a href="Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a></li>

<li><a href="Glycerius" title="Glycerius">Glycerius</a></li>

<li><a href="Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a></li>

<li><a href="Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Empire</a> 395–641</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a></li>

<li><a href="Basiliscus" title="Basiliscus">Basiliscus</a> (w. <a href="Marcus_(son_of_Basiliscus)" title="Marcus (son of Basiliscus)">Marcus</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a></li>

<li><a href="Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a></li>

<li><a href="Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></li>

<li><a href="Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II Constantine</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (w. <a href="Theodosius_(son_of_Maurice)" title="Theodosius (son of Maurice)">Theodosius</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a></li>

<li><a href="Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern/ Byzantine Empire</a> 641–1453</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Heraclius_Constantine" title="Heraclius Constantine">Constantine III</a></li>

<li><a href="Heraclonas" title="Heraclonas">Heraclonas</a> (w. <a href="David_(son_of_Heraclius)" title="David (son of Heraclius)">Tiberius</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (w. <a href="Heraclius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Heraclius (son of Constans II)">Heraclius</a> & <a href="Tiberius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Constans II)">Tiberius</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a></li>

<li><a href="Leontius" title="Leontius">Leontius</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiberius_III" title="Tiberius III">Tiberius III</a></li>

<li><a href="Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> (w. <a href="Tiberius_(son_of_Justinian_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Justinian II)">Tiberius</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Philippicus" title="Philippicus">Philippicus</a></li>

<li><a href="Anastasius_II_(emperor)" title="Anastasius II (emperor)">Anastasius II</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodosius_III" title="Theodosius III">Theodosius III</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a></li>

<li><a href="Artabasdos" title="Artabasdos">Artabasdos</a> (w. <a href="Nikephoros_(son_of_Artabasdos)" title="Nikephoros (son of Artabasdos)">Nikephoros</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a></li>

<li><a href="Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a></li>

<li><a href="Staurakios" title="Staurakios">Staurakios</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> (w. <a href="Theophylact_(son_of_Michael_I)" title="Theophylact (son of Michael I)">Theophylact</a> & <a href="Staurakios_(son_of_Michael_I)" title="Staurakios (son of Michael I)">Staurakios</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V</a> (w. <a href="Constantine_(son_of_Leo_V)" title="Constantine (son of Leo V)">Constantine</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a></li>

<li><a href="Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (w. <a href="Constantine_(son_of_Theophilos)" title="Constantine (son of Theophilos)">Constantine</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a> (w. <a href="Thekla_(daughter_of_Theophilos)" title="Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)">Thekla</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (w. <a href="Constantine_(son_of_Basil_I)" title="Constantine (son of Basil I)">Constantine</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Alexander_(Byzantine_emperor)" title="Alexander (Byzantine emperor)">Alexander</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanos_I_Lekapenos" title="Romanos I Lekapenos">Romanos I Lekapenos</a> (w. <a href="Christopher_Lekapenos" title="Christopher Lekapenos">Christopher</a>, <a href="Romanos_Lekapenos_(grandson_of_Romanos_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanos Lekapenos (grandson of Romanos I)">Romanos</a> (?), <a href="Stephen_Lekapenos" title="Stephen Lekapenos">Stephen</a> & <a href="Constantine_Lekapenos" title="Constantine Lekapenos">Constantine Lekapenos</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a></li>

<li><a href="John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a></li>

<li><a href="Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_VIII" title="Constantine VIII">Constantine VIII</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanos_III_Argyros" title="Romanos III Argyros">Romanos III Argyros</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" title="Michael IV the Paphlagonian">Michael IV</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_V_Kalaphates" title="Michael V Kalaphates">Michael V</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodora_Porphyrogenita" title="Theodora Porphyrogenita">Theodora</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_VI_Bringas" title="Michael VI Bringas">Michael VI Bringas</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_I_Komnenos" title="Isaac I Komnenos">Isaac I Komnenos</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_X_Doukas" title="Constantine X Doukas">Constantine X Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Eudokia_Makrembolitissa" title="Eudokia Makrembolitissa">Eudokia Makrembolitissa</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> (w. <a href="Leo_Diogenes" title="Leo Diogenes">Leo</a> & <a href="Nikephoros_Diogenes" title="Nikephoros Diogenes">Nikephoros</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a> (w. <a href="Andronikos_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)">Andronikos</a>, <a href="Konstantios_Doukas" title="Konstantios Doukas">Konstantios</a> & <a href="Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros III Botaneiates</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (w. <a href="Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a>)</li>

<li><a href="John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> (w. <a href="Alexios_Komnenos_(co-emperor)" title="Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)">Alexios</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II Komnenos</a></li>

<li><a href="Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a> (w. <a href="John_Komnenos_(son_of_Andronikos_I)" title="John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)">John</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Isaac_II_Angelos" title="Isaac II Angelos">Isaac II Angelos</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexios_III_Angelos" title="Alexios III Angelos">Alexios III Angelos</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios IV Angelos</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexios_V_Doukas" title="Alexios V Doukas">Alexios V Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodore_I_Laskaris" title="Theodore I Laskaris">Theodore I Laskaris</a> (w. <a href="Nicholas_Laskaris_(son_of_Theodore_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Laskaris (son of Theodore I)">Nicholas</a>)</li>

<li><a href="John_III_Vatatzes" class="mw-redirect" title="John III Vatatzes">John III Vatatzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodore_II_Laskaris" title="Theodore II Laskaris">Theodore II Laskaris</a></li>

<li><a href="John_IV_Laskaris" class="mw-redirect" title="John IV Laskaris">John IV Laskaris</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Andronikos_II_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos II Palaiologos">Andronikos II Palaiologos</a> (w. <a href="Irene_of_Montferrat" title="Irene of Montferrat">Irene</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Michael_IX_Palaiologos" title="Michael IX Palaiologos">Michael IX Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a> (w. <a href="Anna_of_Savoy" title="Anna of Savoy">Anna</a>)</li>

<li><a href="John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a> (w. <a href="Matthew_Kantakouzenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Kantakouzenos">Matthew</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Andronikos_IV_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos IV Palaiologos">Andronikos IV Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="John_VII_Palaiologos" title="John VII Palaiologos">John VII Palaiologos</a> (w. <a href="Andronikos_V_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos V Palaiologos">Andronikos V</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="John_VIII_Palaiologos" title="John VIII Palaiologos">John VIII Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic emperors</a> (260–274)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">Palmyrene emperors</a> (271–273)</li>

<li><a href="Carausian_revolt" title="Carausian revolt">Britannic emperors</a> (286–296)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_Trapezuntine_emperors" title="List of Trapezuntine emperors">Trapezuntine emperors</a> (1204–1461)</li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonian emperors</a> (1224–1242)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">Augustae</a></li>

<li><a href="Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">Usurpers</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Roman_usurpers" title="List of Roman usurpers">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Byzantine_usurpers" title="List of Byzantine usurpers">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207121#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1329" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207121#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1329" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000078202228">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/1214340">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJt44PcYjQbjVFKHBJjHmd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/133878724">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2010016594">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17168936z">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17168936z">BnF data</a></li><li><a class="external text external" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/32468">Vatican</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/133878724.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/133878724">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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